Forensic Science Research Paper

As history is remembered, there is a great deal riding on the turn of the twentieth century. Understandably the turn into this new era came to be known as the century of science and for no better reason than the latest growth in our technological advancements. Along with this came a new scientific detection, uncovering and devoting the change in technology to the deterring of crime and the capturing of criminals. This true systematic footing gave way to a new approach in crime identification and the results that followed shocked the world, as the birth of forensic science came about.

Advancements in forensic science are constantly developing through the application of evidence and the growth of technology. The factual scientific evidence that is gathered at each crime scene must be understood as solid evidence, given that a suspect can be granted freedom or confinement because of the applied techniques used for or against his case. Because forensics provides the most accurate point in investigation of a crime scene, we must understand that the best way to identify criminals is through the application of forensic science.

In 1887 the world of crime was given a new detective, a detective who had the ability to solve, and explain why and how crimes were created. A fiction novel produced by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle gave creation to the greatest of all fictional sleuths Sherlock Holmes (Doyle). Holmes discoveries and abilities to rationalize with crime gave exponential growth to the world of criminal investigation. It was an era of trial and tribulation, but in the imagination of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle a fictitious forensic scientist paved the way for criminal investigation. Sherlock Holmes was notorious for setting the prime example for using criminal methods along with tactics such as the well known magnifying glass in the search for “clues”. Even before the ingenious deductive reasoning of Sherlock Holmes, forensic science has grown from its beginnings as early as the 700s. The Chinese were renowned for beginning the work of fingerprints in reference to the identity of documents and clay sculptures (Eckert 45). From this discovery criminal investigation took a dynamic progress towards the application of forensic sciences.

The 1800’s provided substantial growth including the use of questioning criminals in the approach to solving the crime. This decade also saw the development of testing in different methods in an advancement to recognize the presence of blood as well the use of photography to preserve the identification and documentation of the crime scene (History of Forensic). It was not until 1888 when the use of forensic science was actually applied to the corpse of Jack the Ripper in reference to the discovery of wound patterns or the methods used in his murders. Doctors in London were given permission to examine the body to further understand the reasons behind his murders. From the 1800’s into the turn of the next century forensic science revealed its true reasoning’s and recorded an advancement in the field for every year from then on out.

Forensic science over the last hundred years has given insight into the world of crime and has placed a hindrance on crime itself. In the early 1900’s forensic specialists were for the most part self-taught, with the motivation that there were no schools or areas that emphasized the practice of such an application of sciences (Eckert 27). It was not until the 1930’s that such an approach towards forensic investigation actually established an academic discipline. The changing efforts of forensic science lead to an astonishing amount of new discoveries throughout the 1900’s. Establishments of microscopes used for bullet comparison in the 1920’s allowed for investigators to accurately match a bullet to the gun it was released from. Along with this discovery came the development of the absorption-inhibition ABO blood typing technique in 1931 and the long waited invention of the breathalyzer for sobriety test finally arrived “History of Forensic”. The late 80’s saw the biggest change in forensic science history, the birth of DNA testing to accurately solve a crime and vindicate an innocent suspect. DNA testing grew to be the most predominant certification, accreditation and stable testing in the application of forensic sciences in the court of law (History of Forensics). The dawn of a new science was here at last and the problem behind criminals at large would finally come to an end.

Currently as a freshman attending the University of Northern Colorado, I intend to double major in the fields of criminal justice and chemistry, with an emphasis in forensic science. I have always had a desire to work in the field of forensics to develop technologies that will further the study and application of science to the law. Over the past two years I have worked with the Aurora Police Department (APD), and the coroners’ office in furthering my knowledge in the study of medical jurisprudence or forensics. While working with the APD I established the opportunity to collaborate my efforts with the Criminal Scene Investigation unit (CSI). While there I was given the chance to meet many of the officers who worked in that department, including forensic analysis detectives and the crime scene detectives. I was put through a series of tests including a polygraph test (lie detector) and a series of handwriting analysis. While with the CSI unit I spent much of my time in real life scenarios and experienced first hand the initial process of the crime scene. For example, the initial search of the residence is crucial for the safety of the officers at the scene, and as well the importance of maintaining the original structure of the evidence. Maintaining a “clean” crime scene will provide for undisturbed evidence and the protection of the officers arriving first in case of any threatening dangers.

I witnessed many cases, some of which are still pending, and visited a handful of autopsies revealing information dealing with cause of death. In working with those cases I learned that all deaths are treated as murders until proven otherwise. In certain scenarios dealing with death the officer in charge of that scene would remove a hair strand from the victim and take it to the lab for examination. At the lab the forensic scientist would examine the hair follicle for a built up source of protein. This process was used to identify whether or not the victim struggled, because as your body is in a state of helplessness it produces and releases a chemical that causes a bonding agent (protein) to form around hair follicles and if so then the case was usually taken as a murder. I worked along side many of the investigating task forces, including homicide, fraud and white collar crimes. This internship has proved to be invaluable and will continue to enhance my knowledge and interests in the aspect of criminal scene investigation.

Forensic science or medical jurisprudence has an extensive array of applications dealing with crime and law, which prove to be of most value in the developing of technologies to further the scientific gathering and recording of evidence. Forensic science deals with many modern day indecencies in relation to civil cases including forgeries, fraud and negligence. Forensics is also used in everyday scenarios including the determination of any violations in the use of food markets, the production of medicines, the evaluation of drinking water, establishing whether it meets legal purity, and determining that the emissions of automobiles are at acceptable levels (Kenny 23). On an international level forensics will oversee the production of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and investigations of any establishment or creation behind nuclear weapons. Although forensics does deal with a large variety of applications the most common and well known are those that deal with a victim, including robbery, kidnapping, assault, rape and murder (Forensic Science). Of these futile crimes an examination of the victim or the evidence present is an essential requirement, foreseen as being of utmost importance in the closing stages of the trial.

With each murder the large question at hand is the cause of death. In dealing with the victim the individual who conducts an examination of the corpse or autopsy is the medical examiner (Forensic Science). Also known as a coroner, the medical examiner’s job is to study the body or victim to determine type of death (natural or unnatural), cause of death being gunshot wounds or sever trauma to the skull and relativity of death to argument at trial. After this information is gathered along with the past medical history of the patient, the examiner establishes a report and provides a copy for the district attorney to provide as evidence for the case at trial. The medical examiner starts an examination by taking into account the recent guided expertise or retrieved information that has been established at the crime scene. Because there are an extensive number of ways in which a person can die, it is necessary for the medical examiner to understand the broad study of structural as well as functional alterations that can occur to a body due to injury (Marriner 67). A medical examiner usually specializes in forensic pathology. Along with a certain specialty an examiner tends to acknowledge oneself with an extensive amount of training and attends a credited university in search of a doctorate.

Forensic science includes many investigative areas, including pathology (examination of body tissues and fluids), toxicology (study of drug related substances), and odontology (the examination of teeth). Along with theses three main examination principles come a few areas of natural study including psychiatry, anthropology, biology, chemistry, and physics (Saferstein 67). Although the natural areas of study are not as pertinent to the actual application of forensics they still provide for a strong approach to guided solutions and how certain crimes are committed. Forensic science strongly depends on the contents included at a crime scene, through precise and accurate measures in the discovery of evidence. In addition to the investigating areas of examination, there are a number of other methods used in the approach to solving the crime. They consist of: ballistics, cause of death, disputed documents, DNA typing, explosives and fire, fingerprinting, forensic anthropology, psychological profiling, identification of remains, serology, time of death, trace evidence and voice prints (Evans 14). Although all are important for accurately determining the cause of death, this report will touch base with all, but will provide for more information on some than others. With every applied science come representatives who have acquired a degree of expertise and a broad area of knowledge to each of the related fields. Individuals of this nature are absolutely imperative to the medical examiner and the diagnostics of the body.

Each of the three main areas of study are linked to the initial examination of the body. First of which and most commonly used in the application of forensics is pathology. Used for a variety of different reasons pathology is the general examination of body tissues and fluids. Primarily in association with post-mortem chemical changes and changes in connection with wounding. (Davies 56). For example when a body is found at a crime scene with no known cause of death, different methods will be used in the examination of the body itself and the fluids of that particular body. With an examination of the body pathologists will be able to determine the time of death and will develop suitable evidence pertaining to the cause of death.
Along with the relationship binding the time of death to the cause of death comes a perpetual area that highlights the method used at the crime scene. In the late seventeenth century, a chemist by the name of Johann Metzeger developed a method that would clarify if there was any use of arsenic (a poison used in the late 1700’s into the next century) in any given murder (Evans 230). Prior to this scientist of all types would baffle over a death, uncertain to say whether it was of natural or unnatural causes. Metzeger discovered that if a substance containing arsenic was heated and a cold plate was placed over the heated substance a thin layer of arsenious oxide would form on the plate. Although this discovery led to the detection of arsenic in food, it bore no direct relationship between whether or not the poison had been consumed by the body.
This initial discovery gave way to a detection of arsenic located in the corpse. A Dr. Valentine Rose of the Berlin Medical Facility in 1806 found that if he were to cut up a corpse’s stomach and boiled its contents to filter any remaining flesh, he could treat it with nitric acid which had the effect of converting any presence of arsenic into arsenic acid “Drugs and Firearms”. By doing so allowed for the remains to be subjected to Metzeger’s cold plate phenomenon.

This scientific study was taken one step further when a middle-aged London chemist named James Marsh invented a suitable means of detecting even the smallest amounts of arsenic. His method was similar to the original method of Metzger’s cold plate, but instead required the use of a U-shaped tube which gave way for only the smallest secretion of vapors which exited through a small nozzle. The tested material was dropped onto a zinc plate and then covered with sulfuric acid. If any arsenic gas was detected, then as it passed through the glass tube its residue would form a layer in the circular part of the tube “Drug and Firearm”.
This method invented by James Marsh is still used today in a refined form. Now because arsenic is not the only potent poison in the hands of criminals, others such as strychnine and cyanide need to be made aware of so industrial chemicals can find a relationship between reactions. Although the study put forth in the discovery of toxicology was long and stringent, there were only approximately 28 homicides dealing with toxicology recorded in the united states in 1996 “Drugs and Firearms”. Yet with this discovery there still are individuals who dare test the James Marshes creation of arsenic identification or more appropriately known today as the lab of forensic analysis.

A human corpse can be twisted, tangled, plunged into a raging river and even burned, and not much of its components will outlast the teeth after death. Because of this, scientists have become quite familiar with identification through means of odontology. As a matter of fact many times it is the case that at certain crime scenes the only means of identification consists of the teeth. Arguably it is said that just as fingerprints have no identical match neither do teeth given that there has never been a recorded match, but one may still exist (Bennett 117). As well as fingerprints, teeth tend to wear and distort from the original recorded data that was collected during childhood years. Because of this it is vital to have both ante- and postmortem means of identification for a successful identification to take place (Heras 57).

Throughout the world today over two hundred different tooth charting methods exist. The universal approach used in most developed countries including America includes a count from the upper right molar to the lower left molar totaling 32 teeth (Evans 142). Because a odontogram or dental grid is created by recording five visible surfaces, the likelihood of there ever being exactly two identical matches is slight. As well as serving for identification of a unidentifiable corpse, the recorded odontological features also provide for common ground in identifying criminals if bite marks should exist at a crime scene. In many cases a bite mark may be the apparent evidence linked to the conviction of crimes such as burglary, homicide, child abuse and rape. In fact as the statistics report since 1992 there have been one hundred and ninety three reported cases, dealing with odontology (Weigler 1).

As of the late eighties The American Dental Association (ADA) sought out a means of future identification, by inserting a coded micro disc onto an upper molar. On each of these micro chips a twelve digit code is embedded, which can be read and matched by a computer. This code contains information about an average citizen’s personal traits. Teeth also are used for the recognition of an individual’s age, by measuring the growth of the dental tissue surrounding the tooth. Because teeth wear down from constant use the accuracy in recording the appropriate age lessens once the tested individual reaches age 25.

Of the previous discussed methods used in crime scene investigation, ballistics deals around a broad spectrum of projectiles in motion and what cause will effect that motion. When the term ballistics is brought up in forensic investigation it has created a definition of its own that deals primarily with the study of firearms and bullets (Heard 74). In recorded history it is known that the first hand gun originated in approximately 1200 A.D. Etched into the barrel of each handgun is a spiral grove that improves the aim of the handgun, by placing a spin on the projectile and stabilizing its motion. It is exactly this groove that allows forensic scientists to compare and identify the relationship between each bullet and handgun. This process known as rifling leaves a special mark called striations on the surface of the bullet and allows for this method to be used (Giannelli 195).

Because each barrel is manufactured differently it is possible to identify if a certain bullet was fired from a certain gun. Of course there are numerous numbers of bullets for each gun, but the variations from bullets fired from each gun is immediately apparent. This process of ballistics is manageable because each gun is manufactured separately. Given that each time a new gun is created the same tool that created the last gun would be used for each remaining gun. Because the tools to make the barrels are worn down immediately with each succeeding gun, it would be impossible to exactly in code or etch the same pattern twice (Evans 3). On top of that each gun will hold its pattern allowing for a direct comparison to be made to each bullet fired.

One impartial argument that can be made in determining and matching the gun to the bullet is the fact that when a bullet is fired, generally it is fired with meaning to strike. Because of this if the bullet were to come in contact with a hard bone or other material, this could cause the bullet to become distorted and in turn create a problem in matching the bullet to the gun (Iabinovia 131). But with each fired bullet a casing or shell is released into the crime scene making it more profitable to use for evidence. Just as with each bullet the shell as well is given a marking caused by the firing pin which is released by the trigger embedding its own marking onto the back of each shell. A shell is composed of a casing and a soft metal cap that is struck by the pin to create an internal explosion causing the bullet to release from the shell down the barrel and swirling through the air. Before the discovery of smokeless powder with each firing of a weapon the GSR or gun shot residue was left behind on the shooter’s skin which could be tested through chemical processing. Because an array of household products contain nitrate which is the substance that is left behind after the firing of the weapon, that method has been then since thought over.

With every crime scene that deals with a death whether it be a suicide, or murder, the main question at stake is the cause of death. Along with the first analytical approach in investigating a victims death, there must reside conclusive evidence for three questions. Who is the person? How long has he or she been dead? What was it that caused the death? Even before science took an interest in crime, the puzzling phenomenon that had baffled even the most intellectual forensic detectives was the cause of death (Petschel 82). Determining whether or not the cause of death was an accident out of clumsiness, or a plotted murder establishes whether or not there will be a charge filed and a suspect sought. For example, case dealing with a husband and his wife where the husband claims that his wife fell to her death down a flight of stairs, yet with the autopsy showing that her injuries are inconsistent with that type of fall may lead investigators to believe otherwise.

As talked about earlier, the pathologist now is the sole investigator of determining the cause of death. By examination of body fluids and tissues the medical examiner can narrow down the evidence to what had caused the victims death and answer the three important questions that reside in finding solid scientific evidence. With the knowledge to discover how, why, and for what reasons a person has died, gives science only an extended parameter of detection (Rainio 171).

Throughout the world of forensic detection our differences as individuals are noted by the color of our hair, or our eyes, our height and our weight. Each of these characteristics gives others a guideline to follow when determining how one of us may differ from the other. At the scene of a crime our characteristics must be more identifiable than just a visual concept to follow. There are a handful of ways to determine whether the questioned suspect was at the crime scene. The use of visual aid might come in play, for instance a neighbor may notice an unusual individual entering the house next door, and later hear that a burglary took place at the same residence that she had noticed the suspicious felon. The neighbor can provide the police with the initial evidence pertaining to characteristics of the individual. This is a grand initial step in the process of investigation, but again the solid scientific evidence must be more concrete than the word of one witness.
In 1911, biochemist Phoebus Levene discovered the long waited concrete evidence that will provide for a solid investigation, as will hold up in the court of law as unyielding evidence. It was through the understanding that each individual cell has a nucleus containing nucleic acid. It was also discovered that there are two types of nucleic acid, one known as ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid or more commonly called DNA (Evans 55). This proposed theory stated that within each nucleus is a set of twenty-three pairs of chromosomes made up of DNA. It was later discovered that this phenomenon was possible given that your genetic code, or DNA strand is embedded by one chromosome of your father’s sperm and one chromosome from your mother’s egg (Gans 168). This breakthrough in technology would soon lead to a grand conclusion and even further established evidence.

In the 1940’s it was determined that a DNA code was a life strand and not only could it identify an individual but it was also the genetic makeup that gives us our personal individual traits. A DNA strand is a lot like a tutorial in a video game or the index of a book. Just as an index or tutorial is unique to its own book or game, a DNA strand is the same for us. It was determined around the 1950’s that there are four isolated chemicals that make up our genetic code, adenie (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thiamine (T). Like rungs of a ladder each are strung together to provide for our genetic makeup. The key to the placement of each individual chemical is mapped out as having (A) always joining with (T) and (C) always attaching with (G).

In turn an example of a section of our life line would be as follows:
A-C-T-T-G-A-C
T-G-A-A-C-T-G

Even though the same genetic structure is created to be universal because each of us has the same body parts and organs, the linking section will vary from individual to individual. As a sample of DNA is removed from one individual it can be mixed with a restriction enzyme that will remove a strand or “piece of the code” at a particular sequence. This stand is then placed in a gel and an electrical current is passed through it separating the fragments according to size. Once complete the DNA structure is removed from the gel by a nylon membrane called a blot. This code is then treated with a radioactive genetic probe which will attach the polymorphic DNA fragments (Gans 212). DNA can be retrieved from a large number of samples but the most common are blood, hair, and semen. After a series of comparisons, scientists can tell if the DNA removed from the crime scene is a match with the suspected criminal.

It was once said that “nothing has more greatly enhanced the cause of crime detection than the discovery that no two people have the same fingerprints.” In 1879, a clerk at the Prefecture of Police in Paris, named Alphonse Bertillon produced the first systematic approach of identifying one individual from the next. A simple characteristic, such as an individuals hair color provides for an accurate difference between two individuals. Yet when evidence at a crime scene is discovered the simple characteristic will not hold stable, in proving the suspects guilt in the court of law. Bertillion’s method was based on the measurement of 243 separate lengths of an individuals body (Evans 90). Rather surprising, Bertillion’s method was quite accurate and became well known across the land. But it was sure to be condemned almost at birth by another means of identification, this one foolproof. With such a brilliant discovery, every man began to reason amongst themselves in awe, not understanding how one individuals fingerprint could be dissimilar from the rest. Even before there time fingerprints were used as a means of identification, in fact this individuality had been long recognized in such civilizations as China and Babylon. In the book of Job a passage reads, “He sealeth up the hand of every man that all men may know his work.” The idea of all men being similar by nature and no one could be accurately identified just by their fingerprints, was settled at another man’s curiosity. A Dr. Henry Faulds, published a letter in Nature, a British scientific journal that sparked the identity of fingerprints. Intrigued by finger impressions on fragments of ancient pottery, Faulds became interested in the idea that these so called fingerprints could be used as a method of identification. And so the modern fingerprint analysis began, and the excitement was noticed by the debate in Nature, and the first serious study of fingerprints began.

After scientist discovered that fingerprints were not inherited and that even identical twins have different ridge patterns, the classification of fingerprints were put into three groups; arches, loops, and whorls. Even more so fingerprint impressions fall into three basic types: latent, visible, and the plastic or molded print. By far the most common is the latent print, which is invisible to the eye, but is formed by sweat from the hands themselves or the unnoticed contact between the fingers and the glands located on the other parts of ones body. A latent print is particularly faun of such surfaces as glass or polished wood. The second type of print and the most legible kind is held together with the stained markings of blood or ink. This type of print known as the visible print is a rarity at a crime scene. The last print and also very rare to find is the plastic or molded print. This print is made on a soft surface, such as cheese, soap, or putty (Beavan 74).

Along with the different impressions that can be formed by a fingerprint, comes a variety of methods used to examine the prints. There are a number of ways to inspect a print, but the most common is the use of a black powder or organic substance. With this black powder, the investigating officer can sprinkle some shards over the item that is being examined, and then run a magnet over the powder to remove the excess powder. After the powder has absorbed into the detailed ridges on the fingerprint, the officer can remove the print with an adhesive strip, to later be tested and compared to others (suspect identities). On certain surfaces, such as checks, or security documents an iodine-fuming process is best to use, to lift the print. This new means of identification brought forth a dramatic increase in the criminal apprehension.

With every body discovered, the first question at the crime scene asked is “Who is the person?” This is of great importance given that in most murder cases the victim is normally killed by someone they know. It is exactly this reason why murderers go to great extents to conceal their victims identity. Bodies in general are very difficult to dispose of, bulky and cumbersome, they tend to float in water, resist fire, smell awful, and are usually full of clues as of the persons identity. Of these clues, some such as bones and teeth merit individual consideration and are dealt elsewhere in this paper. In the initial process of discovering a body, putting names to a few scrapes of remains has frequently provided forensic science with its greatest triumphs.

Linking the mystery of a unknown body to the identity of one individual, working with barely a handful of human matter is an astonishing accomplishment. Our bodies are unique to us and do have distinctive characteristics that provide information on our beings. These distinctive characteristics include: fingerprints, odontology (bite marks), voice prints, and serology (blood analysis. Although three of the four listed have traits that are exclusive to each individual, serology alone provides information on our blood types that can be common amongst one another. The average human being has about ten pints of blood gurgling through his or her system at any given time (Bennett 143). As of 1875 scientist realized that there were indeed various types of blood and that even though the visual characteristics looked the same, the genetic makeup was vastly different.

In 1901 an Australian-born biologist named Karl Landsteiner standardized the grouping system and coded our blood to today’s present form. This process was done by separating the serum in red blood cells in a centrifuge, and then mixing the serum with blood cells from different individuals. Landsteiner noticed that if he was to mix different blood cells with one another a different distinctive reaction would occur, rather than if he were to mix the same blood cells from two different individuals. In two separate processes the blood cells of one serum would attract to one another and the blood cells of another serum would repel one another. Or in other words one group of cells agglutinated-or clumped together-the other didn’t. Landsteiner was sure of his conclusion and labeled the two blood variations A and B. Not long after he made his stated position, he discovered a third blood type that as well reacted differently from both A and B. He named this blood type C, which soon became known as O (Bennett 145). One year later Landsteiner’s assistant discovered yet another type of blood that did not agglutinate with either A or B. This new blood variation was labeled AB, and thus the four blood types were identified. The next great advancement in the understanding of blood variations came in 1949, when two British scientist concluded that the nuclei that are found in female blood cells, will generally contain a distinctive structure that is rare in males.

These discoveries have lead the way in criminology and in the understanding of different blood variations. When blood is found at a crime scene, investigators are now able to determine if the presence of this unknown substance can identifiably and accurately be labeled as blood. This process is done by the use of a Kastle-Meyer test, which uses a solution of phenolphthalein that will turn pink if it comes in contact with blood. After it has been established that the substance is blood, another test known as the precipitin test can be preformed to establish weather or not it is human blood and not animal blood. Lastly, with the use of the processes listed above the blood can be grouped into its given classification, A, B, O or AB and then determined weather the sample it came from is male or female. For all of these reasons, blood is one of the most reliable and solid evidence found at a crime scene.

With the discovery of a body it is crucial that investigators determine the time of death. In doing so there are three traditional methods used in determining the length of time that the corpse has been dead: rigor mortis, hypostasis, and body temperature. None of which are completely reliable given that each of with can be hastened by a number of factors. Rigor mortis usually begins to set in approximately three hours after death, causing muscle tension that begins in the face hand slowly works its way down the entire body. The process, once initiated usually takes about twelve hours to travel through the body and approximately thirty six hours for the body to return to its normal state.

Hypostasis will also develop in a regular time sequence, just as rigor mortis. Once the heart stops mixing the plasma and the cell begin to settle like the sediment in a fine glass of wine the skin will begin to change colors in approximately thirty to sixty minuets. This process begins with the cells settling and then releasing from each of there individual capillaries, and enter the body. Depending on the position of the body at time of death, will depend on the area of discoloration. For example if a body is found dead on its back, gravity will take effect and the process of hypostasis will begin the discoloration across the individuals back (Snyder 74). In addition to the information provided by the process, this will also help investigators accurately decide the position of the body at time of death.

The third method used in determining the time of death is body temperature. When oxygen is no longer fueling the body and keeping it warm, the temperature falls at a rate of approximately one degree per hour. There can be a vast significance to the temperature of an obese individual compared to that of a thinner person. As well the temperature of the room where the body is located can create a difference in the average temperature of the body over a lapsed period of time. A universal formula is used when determining the time of death: normal temperature (98.6 °F) – body temperature / 1.5 (Evans 217).

In determining the time of death all factors must be 100% accurate to report an accurate time of death. Generally the approximate time of death will provide for an overall accurate decision on when the body had died. Listed here are then the conventional means of establishing an approximate time of death. Of course science is continually developing new improvements that will further the listed processes.

“Every contact leaves a trace.” So said the great French criminologist Dr. Edmund Locard. Every time a crime occurs involving physical contact, there is sure to be a “clue” or identifiable trace of evidence left behind. Each time a perpetrator commits a crime he will either leave something behind or take something along with him, often it is both. The most common items to be left at a crime scene are things like, hair, fibers, grit, powder, flakes of skin, a button or any other of countless items. With the evidence gathered it is crucial that the investigating officer handles and retrieves the evidence with great care. By its nature trace evidence is very minute and very easy to overlook (Nicekell 122). Only the most precise and meticulous examination will uncover all that there is to be found.

At each crime scene the trace evidence that is worth gathering may be invisible to the naked eye. For this reason, the handheld magnifying glass, although forever linked with images of Sherlock Holmes, still remains to be the single most useful piece of scientific equipment available to an investigator. The magnifying glass began its roots with the birth of criminal investigation, but gave light towards the invention of a compound microscope, which was invented in 1590. With even the newest technology of its time a simple reflected light microscope could only enhance an image up to a factor of one thousand times its size. It was found that even at such a great magnitude there was still need for greater magnification. In 1924 a French physicist Louis de Broglie first suggested the idea of a scanning electron microscope. Although a little ahead of his time Broglie gave substantial research in the process before it finally became fully operational in 1935. This new technological achievement would scan an image with an electronic beam and retrieve information which generates electronic emissions about the sample’s contours (Nickell 132). If that not alone stands above anything of its time, the microscope would produce an image up to 150,000 times its normal size as a three dimensional object. This technique is particularly useful in comparing evidence like paint fragments, fibers, paper, and wood. As well the microscope can enhance the image and provide high resolution photomicrographs as use in court cases.

The next question at stake is what is the unknown sample made of, and with our answer came two German scientist, Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Gustav Kirchoff, who discovered the principle of spectrometry. The two scientist discovered that with each individual atom came a series of their own signature, providing a method of identification just as our fingerprints do for us. By passing light through a substance it is possible to produce a spectrum, which the spectroscope will reveal a series of dark lines called absorption lines that can be measured at different levels of intensity (Nickell 134). Because of this it is possible to identify all manner of different substances.

Forensic science as applied today is a highly technological field using electron microscopes, lasers, ultraviolet and infrared light, advanced analytical chemical techniques and computerized databanks to analyze and record evidence. The future of forensics is in store for a tremendous amount of change through the approach of investigation and application of evidence. Forensic science has given birth to a new world of technological advancements, through the applications of DNA, the applicability of ballistics, the social structure of fingerprinting and the solid approach of all other investigation methods. It will be understood that as the advancements of forensic science strengthen, the tendency for any given individual to walk free from a crime will weaken. Because forensics provides for the most accurate position in investigation of a crime scene, we must understand that the best way to identify and prove the guilt of a criminal is through the application of forensic science.

Racism Research Paper

The Webster Dictionary defines racism as the assumption that the characteristics and abilities of an individual are determined by race and that one race is biologically superior to another. Any form of racism implies discrimination. In the twenty first century, although, the whole world pursues the fairness, it still alive and well in every aspects of our life as the major dilemma of societies. And it has changed from before with the perception of globalization. The major reason is the movement of immigration. “Racism is an integral, permanent, and indestructible component of this society (Bell, Derrick 1992)?and the “immigrant workers are its new victims (TEKЭN AKILLIOРLU 1997). It is not difficult to find out the common phenomena that racism persists in the workplace and what it reflects are access to employment, working conditions, harassment, dismissal and equal pay.

Racism affects decision making about employment in the recruitment process. This includes fill out applications with ‘foreign’ names and your nationalities sometimes including your color assuming that nationals of other countries are less likely to have the right to work in this country. In England where we could find, if you want to apply a job, the “White comes first? When I was in France, I have worked in the “Melon filed?for two summer holidays. The experiences tell me that it is hard for a foreigner to have a job in France. I have had many difficulties in applying a job at the first time. Primarily I should prepare my CV, but what the French way in the CV and motion letter is writing down by you hand. What I should mention more is my nationality. I have sent them to the “Futurescope Park?which is one of the best-known Parks in Europe. However, I was refused with the reason of “they have enough employees? However, my French classmates who apply in the afternoon get in this job after few days. I see this kind of racism as the subconscious racism because they may not think of themselves as racist. Another kind racist may be intentionally racist, they disliking foreigners and refusing to hire them. It also can be fond in France. After losing the chance to access “the better job? I have sent the letter to the farms, and telephone them to ask whether they need labors or not, one of them said that they lack of people, however, what the first passel is the native people. I deeply felt that the power of has gained by the Secretary-self who response for recruitment. What they done may loose the talent causing the “monopoly? It is the dangerousness in the human resource management for reducing the equality of talent access ability. They worried about certain individuals in race, less in their attitudes. Form my knowledge I would like to recommend that recruit people both on the strength of their qualifications and on the basis that they would work well with colleagues, but never on race. From the economic development view, I would like to say that less racism, less unemployment.

Racism influences the working condition. The access abilities to the “better job?are destroyed by racism. The people who were discriminated have to work in the lower class filed where the “superior people?would not like to go. The employees we found in the farm are almost foreigners and the army recruitment is a good example too: we are not strangeness for the Abroad Corps of Europe.

Racism creates inequalities on position appointment, promotion policy in the workplace. From the report of Newsletter 2000, racism in the workplace excludes people from job opportunities, and prevents them from gaining promotion when they do get jobs. In England, according to the BBC bushiness news in racism, the most higher class people is white, many blacks and Asians with high qualifications are still in the lower working class. It is normal for the new immigrants who haven’t the same culture background and some special knowledge in the new environment, even they have already got the high qualifications, but what is going on the black who born on England? What are the reasons conduct this situation? According to the knowledge I have gained from the Managing Diversity & Equal Opportunity lecture, the homogeneity exist in the race whereas they feel that themselves as the same group because they have the same langue culture and so on so focus. This kind collective understandings lead antialien. The trust builds within the “same group? I would like to continue my experience on working in melon filed again to indicate the factors and reasons: Cutting melon is the hardest work in France, as the result, the black becomes the major force with in few French and Chinese in the filed. What we can see is that French always get the higher position in the group even they without any knowledge in cutting and management. “Control, or internal optimization, was enhance by the appoint of a Finance officer and a Personnel officer?the personnel officer deals with recruitment, morale and attempts to improve efficiency by placing people where they are most needed (Flood & Romm 1996 cite page 102).”This unfairness conducts the difficulties in managing the group so that it downsizes the productivity. The group leads always follow the black people to check whether they work hard or not, and black leads go with the Asian people. The unsatisfaction exists in every one and every race has the inimical emotion. Another inimical emotion comes from the beliefs that the lead sees black as slaver. We often work more then ten hours every day and never stop within the bad weather, this situation create the absent rate increase everyday. The ludicrous thing is because of the protection of the law and the extra cost in retraining, they just let alone the situations worsen day by day, until near the end of the contact, there is none left except the group leader.

The discrimination also creates inequalities in salary to some extents. The salary the employees will gain should base on the contribution of the employee and the position of the employee in the organization or company. However, what the truth is that the salary is different according to the colors. When I was working in France, I have found that the salary is unfair too. Causing the we didn’t get the extra paid for the overtime work, what the policy the organization applied is all the overtime worked salary is going to the next month which we have already finished all the work. Although we have also received the protection from the “minimum wages?law, there are still many places in the world like France that they use many ways to differentiate the salary from race. The result is no worse because all of us would like to waste the time more than working. In addition, we said: “time is money? We lost the passion. Therefore, the boss lost the money without knowing. How it is a foolish thing!

Dismiss caused by Racism. As I have already stressed before, the similarities exist in the same group and the difference alive between the different colors. If the racism continues to exist in the organization, the colors which are easy hurt still in the dangers of dismissed. One of my friends who worked in the factory of melon was dismissed by the boss with the reason that she worked slower than black people. Of causes, there some true because the physical reason, but we cannot deny that there are some race and gender factors in it.

“The workforce is no longer just a large, invulnerable, unchanging entity as it was in the 1960s and 1970s. Downsizing, mergers and acquisitions have contributed to a projected workforce growth rate of 11 percent for the decade ending in the year 2000 as compared to 27 percent for the last decade, which ended in 1990 (R. Thomas, 1991)? Following the change, racism created other new inequalities in workplace. People are still under the racism discrimination, they are under the fear, unsatisfied condition, and they suffer from loss of confidence, stress, humiliation, insomnia, low morale, anxiety, physical sickness, bad work performance. (Trades Union Congress-racism) The employers lost the value from these consequences–racsim influences individual effectiveness in workplace too. “The individual effectiveness bases on the foundation of openness trust?(Finn 1995).?

“Racism and xenophobia spring from the individual’s fear and insecurity about the future and are nurtured by unemployment and poverty (Crespo, Enrique Baron 1993)”. It is difficult to be brushed with the historical, cultural and economic reasons. How can the management tackle them? The science of managing diversity was designed to solve these kinds problem like race, gender, age?occurring in organization and individuals in the management sense. It based on the belife that every human being is of equal worth, entitled to the same privileges and opportunities, without regard to race, gender, disability or age and strives to ensure that the employees who after being employed should be able to trust that they have been chosen because of their unique qualifications, not because of gender or ethnicity(Beverley, Manuel, Amelia April 30, 1997. Managing Workplace Diversity). “Diversity is defined as “planning and implementing organizational systems and practices to manage people so that the potential advantages of diversity are maximized while its potential disadvantages are minimized? according to Taylor Cox September 1993.

Some people think that we can tackle the race problem in workplace by using affirmative action. Unfortunately, affirmative action is not the efficient way. It was and is the mechanism for women, minorities and immigrants to enter the workforce. “Affirmative action is designed to correct a mistake or an imbalance in the workforce.?(Managing Diversity) http://www.mco.edu/equal/article2.htm It is different from managing diversity.

Conclusion: racism is a very complex problem in present societies, and it extends to everywhere and influences everything we get in. it is a vital area in the workplace, it creates many inequalities at the same time. These inequalities conducts the bad effects on the organization, it strongly lower the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization and the societies. However, we could not annihilate this problem in one day because it is pertinacity in human’s mind and the vulnerable teams always are the immigrants workers who is not familiars with the local law, they are prefer suffering the bad condition to irritating the local people. Whatever the government and institutions made the regulations and efforts to protecting them and helping them to better understand this issue, the best way to conquer discrimination is more a matter of education and awareness than of law. In addition, from the point of the companies, they need to destroy the inequality, which are conduced by racism. There is no contradiction between the organization and individuals, by contrast, the individual and organization should interosculate for benefiting both sides. ‘A truly effective diverse organization is one in which the differences individuals bring are valued and used. Currently we tend to minimize differences and to expect everyone to fit into established ways of working. We should not expect them to. We should be flexible to allow everyone to make the best contribution they can. This has to be reflected in our ways of working, our personnel practices, the way mangers manage. (workplace diversity)? Manages can realize their objective under the pilot of Managing diversity knowledge. It is the knowledge to best use the diversity in different aspects in company managing. After reading the this I hope you could know that the awful aspects of racism in workplace and what the knowledge you should use in solving the problems.

Genetic Engineering Research Paper

Genetic engineering is a scientific process that has recently come a long way. Within the past four years of the twentieth century we have witnessed the most rapid adoption of a new technology in history. Millions of acres of farmland have been planted with genetically engineered crops since 1996. The crops consist mainly of corn, soybeans, and cotton. Genetic engineering techniques allow scientists to insert specific genes into plants and/or animals. Also, species are very easily crossed using genetic engineering. There are many good things that come with genetic engineering; however, there are many bad things as well. Because of this, genetic engineering has caused a great deal of concern and debate.

Genetic engineering is a very interesting process used to alter plants and animals. It is a new technology that combines genes from totally dissimilar species in combinations that are not achievable using conventional breeding methods. Genes from an animal, say, a fish, can be put into a plant, a strawberry for instance, in attempt to improve the strawberry plants. The fish gene is supposed to make the strawberries more resistant to frost by causing the strawberry plant to compose a form of antifreeze which the fish normally produces to endure cold conditions in water.

Although genetic engineering has been going on for over 30 years, it has just lately begun to cause so much commotion. The reason for this is that it wasn’t until recently that scientists began to master to art of genetic engineering and commonly using them in our animals and crops. Until the mid 1990s, the organisms produced by genetic engineering were nearly all confined to laboratories or controlled factory setting. During this time, the main use of genetic engineering was to produce medically useful substances such as insulin. Over the past four years, there has been an unrestrained expansion of genetic engineering into agriculture. By 1999 almost 80 million acres of North American farmland were planted with seed that had been genetically engineered.

If you don’t know all of the facts about genetically engineered food, it seems like an excellent idea. With genetic engineering, you can change plants and animals in many ways that are beneficial to our health and way of life. A genetically engineered vegetable can withhold ice cold conditions and contain more vitamins than a natural vegetable. Genetic engineering is also a way to improve food production and could possibly even result in the solution to world hunger. Another reason why genetic engineering recently became so popular is because its developers claim that it will reduce the use of pesticides and herbicides. However, there are many bad things that come along with these good aspects of genetic engineering.

Over 70% of the foods on store shelves contain genetically engineered components. Although such a large amount of foods in the United States are manufactured with genetically engineered ingredients, there is no requirement that these items are labeled. A great deal of corn and potatoes have been genetically engineered to contain a gene from Bt bacteria which causes every cell of the plants to produce a insecticide toxin. However, there is no way of knowing if the vegetable that you are buying contains this, or any similar genetically engineered ingredients. Along with labeling, effective testing of genetically engineered foods are excused by the FDA as well.

Another poor aspect of genetic engineering is regarding allergic reactions. The genetic engineering of crops and food-producing animals can produce toxic and allergic reactions in humans. Someone allergic to peanuts or shellfish, for instance, would have no way of knowing if a tomato or other food had been altered with proteins from these substances. Genetic engineering could also transfer new and unidentified proteins from various bacteria that have never been known in food supply before, meaning that their toxic or allergic characteristics are unknown. Because of this, the consumption of genetically engineered foods could be discomforting or in some cases even fatal to certain people.

Genetic engineering poses a dangerous threat of pollution to the environment. Genetically engineered organisms that escape or are released from the laboratory could have a prospectively disastrous affect on the earth. Genetically engineered biological pollutants have the potential to be even more destructive than chemical pollutants. Genetically engineered products are alive, and because of this they are more unpredictable than chemical products- they can reproduce, transform, and migrate. Also, unlike chemical or nuclear contamination, gene pollution can never be cleaned up. This could lead to devastating permanent damage to the environment.

Genetic engineering is a radical new technology that has the potential to change our society. Genetic engineering allows people to insert specific genes into a plants and animals to alter the species. Currently over 70% of food that Americans eat is genetically altered in some way. The main crops that are altered are canola, cotton, potatoes and soy. However, there are many other items that are being genetically engineered as well, including animals and trees. Although genetic engineering has a lot of good points, there are many bad points as well. Nevertheless, genetic engineering is still a rather new technology and there is a lot of time and room for improvement.

Abortion Research Paper

Introduction: What Are Partial-Birth Abortions?
‘Partial-birth abortion’ is a term coined by pro-life campaigners to refer to ‘dilation and evacuation’ or ‘Intrauterine Cranial Decompression’ abortions. This procedure is usually performed on women five or more months pregnant, and involves the following: the woman’s cervix is dilated, and the fetus is pulled from the womb feet-first. The head remains within the mother’s body. The surgeon pierces the fetus’ skull, inserts a suction tube, and extracts the fetus’ brain. Naturally, this results in the destruction of the fetus. The fetus’ skull then collapses, allowing the remains to be easily extracted from the mother. As one might expect, this form of abortion is extremely controversial, to a far greater extent than other forms of abortion.

Arguments Against Partial-Birth Abortions
Of course, when analyzing the arguments against partial-birth abortions, we should also remember that all the standard arguments against abortion in general do apply. From a pro-life point of view, a fetus is an independent living being – no different from any other human. Therefore any act which involves deliberately destroying a fetus is in effect murder. Even so, the nature of partial-birth abortions distinguishes them from other forms. Murderers are often given increased punishments based on the level of brutality and sadism involved in their crimes. For example, many states will only use the death penalty if a murderer is found to have fulfilled the criteria for one or more ‘aggravating circumstances’. Hence it is understandable that pro-life groups would be especially hostile towards partial-birth abortions, and see them as an even greater crime than other forms of abortion. The act of sucking a child’s brains from its skull (when put simply in those terms), is something which one might expect to find within a particularly depraved horror movie, not in the hospitals of a civilized nation. Colorado Democrat Patricia Schroeder apparently found this procedure so abhorrent that she forced a vote to prevent images of it being shown to congressional members. Indeed, pictures of partial-birth abortions are rather disturbing, regardless of one’s stance on the abortion issue. If one considers a fetus to be a living human being, then partial-birth abortions are clearly monstrous. Even if one does not, the nature of the procedure is still rather unsettling.

Another major factor is the age of the fetus. Critics claim that partial-birth abortions are frequently performed in the third trimester of a woman’s pregnancy. A fetus which is a few days or weeks old is clearly not viable. One twenty weeks old, however, is a different matter. At that stage a fetus is far more developed. If removed from the womb, for example, it can survive for hours under the power of its own lungs.

In addition, the fetus may well be able to experience pain at this stage, making partial-birth abortions an act of extreme cruelty. Destroying a fetus which is a few days old is one thing – at this stage it could be more easily argued that it is a collection of tissues rather than a child; and it most likely does not have sufficient neurological faculties to properly appreciate pain. In the third trimester, however, these arguments seem rather harder to swallow. If life/personhood does not begin at conception, as various religions groups argue, then it must begin at some point during the pregnancy. From a scientific perspective, this point will be related to the development of the fetus. Hence late-term abortions can be considered murder even by supporters of first trimester abortions.

In relation to the lateness of the procedure, one might also ask why the woman left it so late before deciding to terminate the pregnancy. There are many less offensive methods of abortion available in the first trimester of a pregnancy. A woman usually has every opportunity to make use of these, rather than waiting for twenty weeks before seeking an abortion. Hence to a great degree partial-birth abortions are unnecessary – when carried out for purely elective reasons rather than medical ones, at any rate. Should society allow such a brutal procedure, merely because a woman changes her mind late in her pregnancy, and decides that she does not want a child? One wonders if society should be rewarding such indecisiveness, rather than penalizing it.

Partial-birth abortions are sometimes carried out when the mother learns that the fetus has certain abnormalities, which were not, or could not have been, detected earlier in the pregnancy. Naturally, destroying a fetus for this reason leads to further ethical problems. It could easily be argued that it is wrong to terminate a life merely because the child will be handicapped in some way. Additionally, there is evidence that some women who have abortions for this reason will suffer for it on a psychological level. Some groups argue that even in cases where the baby would have died shortly after birth, an abortion will still cause a woman additional psychological damage.

In addition to harming the fetus, partial-birth abortion can also harm the woman on which the procedure is performed. The dilation of the cervix can lead to the cervix being damaged. The insertion of sharp instruments into the womb, and the potential sharp bone shards (from the fetus’ skull) could cause lacerations to the uterus or cervix.

Arguments For Partial-Birth Abortions
The anti-abortion movement has conveniently succeeded in combining second and third trimester abortions in the public mind, fabricating the term ‘partial-birth abortion’ to aid this. In reality, most ‘dilation and evacuation’ (DE) abortions are performed during the second trimester – before the point of viability. By focusing on the third trimester DE abortions instead, the anti-abortionists are attempting to convince people that this is the normal state of affairs – that fetuses are routinely destroyed past the point of viability, and close to the time of birth. In reality, only a very small percentage of abortions are performed on third trimester fetuses. The difference is a crucial one. Whilst pro-life supporters claim that all fetuses should be treated as human beings, regardless of their level of development, not everyone holds this view – the law certainly does not. If one accepts that before the point of viability a fetus is not a sentient human being, then it makes no sense to outlaw DE abortions for these fetuses. Hence it would be foolish to institute a blanket ban on partial-birth abortions without properly clarifying the term, and distinguishing between second and third trimester usages of DE. The current legislation would do just that, however, and make it illegal to perform third or second trimester DE abortions.

There are many potential risks associated with pregnancy and childbirth, and physicians are surely best placed to evaluate these, and suggest possible solutions. According to some doctors, so-called ‘partial-birth abortions’ are on occasion necessary to safeguard the health of the mother. Physicians must be able to protect their patients in the method they deem most suitable. If a mother will suffer serious injury from giving birth, surely a late-term abortion is the better option.

There are some cases where the fetus has problems which will cause it to die shortly after being born, which will not have come to light in time to perform a different method of abortion. Hence DE abortions are extremely necessary. Many women might prefer to have the fetus aborted, rather than giving birth to a dying child. A termination might also prevent the fetus from enduring additional weeks of suffering. Whilst anti-abortion groups point out that some women suffer psychological problems after aborting fetuses for this reason, this seems to be a rather spurious argument against DE abortions. Surely a woman should take responsibility for her own mental state? If she feels that an abortion is the better option, and has come to terms with the decision, surely she should be free to proceed? To put it simply, if harshly, the existence of weak-minded individuals should not cause a medical procedure to be outlawed. Some women might be traumatized after having an abortion, but that is because they are emotionally weak, and unable to cope with the gravity of their decision. If we outlawed things on this basis, we would be forced to ban a great deal more than DE abortions. Also, some women will no doubt be traumatized by giving birth to a terminally ill baby, and then watching it die. By the logic of the anti-abortionists, this could be used to argue in favor of abortion.

As mentioned previously, there are cases in which a fetus would survive, but would be born severely handicapped. If this is only discovered late in the pregnancy, a DE abortion will be the only solution other than bringing a child into a life of suffering. Anti-abortion groups are keen to call this murder, but one might argue that giving birth to a severely handicapped child is a form of torture. By doing so, you are ensuring that a person will be trapped in a life of suffering, perhaps for decades. Would it not be more merciful to terminate the fetus?

A DE abortion might indeed carry a risk of harming the mother. But so does pregnancy. Even in the modern world, it is not unknown for women to die during childbirth. As long as the risks are explained to, and accepted by, the mother, this is no reason for outlawing the procedure.

Conclusion
As with most ethical issues, it is of course impossible to say that one side is categorically right and the other is not. What we can do, however, is isolate and identify the defining arguments of each side.

The key arguments against partial-birth abortion are the nature of the procedure itself – the fact that a fetus has its brains sucked from its head – and the late stage at which it is performed. All the other arguments are essentially ones which can be applied to any form of abortion.

Likewise, many of the arguments in favor of partial-birth abortions are general arguments in favor of abortion. However, there is the important point that partial-birth abortions have not been adequately defined, and so the current legislation will also threaten second trimester abortions, in addition to the late-term abortions which occur after the fetus is considered viable. Also, in some cases they are necessary to save a woman’s life – if a problem is not detected early enough for another method. Hence if we are arguing over whether or not partial-birth abortions should be banned altogether, we are essentially arguing about who has more right to life – the mother or the fetus. If they are totally banned, some women will die. If they are legal under certain circumstances, some fetuses will be destroyed.

Thus it seems that the arguments need to be made more specific, if we are to reach a conclusion. We must know whether we are arguing for and against DE abortions in general, or just after the point of viability. We must also know whether we are arguing for a total ban on partial-birth abortions, or a limited one (which has provisions for when a woman’s health is in danger, for example). Other than that, it simply becomes a question of whether the procedure is more than we can bear emotionally, whether we consider it too gruesome to be allowed.

Obesity Research Paper

For this assignment I am going to look at how social and cultural factors can influence the prevalence of obesity, and examine ways in which society perceives the obese.

It is considered that culture is one of the most powerful determinants of body weight because it decides the context of eating and activity and also attributes moral and social meanings to weight. Ultimate influences on weight include cultural values, economic resources and social institutions (Brownwell, et al 1995). For example in adolescence gender based expectations on appearance have a significant influence on eating patterns with slimness being a vital social asset (Hill, et al 1997).

Slimness has become more valued as a cultural ideal by industrial societies where people view body fat as ugly and unhealthy. Many societies in developing countries consider fat to be an attribute, whereas in western societies such as Britain, obesity is thought to be a function of social attitudes.

Cultural and behavioural theories examine class differences regarding peoples health beliefs and health related behaviour (Blaxter 1990) Theorists sometimes suggest that family and community ties among the poor are weak, with individuals becoming undisciplined, impulsive and self indulgent. In 1998 a Health Survey for England was carried out to establish prevalence in adults for morbid obesity, obesity and overweight by social class. Social groups I – V were studied and it was concluded that members of classes I, II and III (non manual) were less inclined towards these dispositions than those in social class groups III (manual), IV and V (Joint Health Surveys Unit 1999). However, in general obesity the pattern of central obesity is more apparent in women for whom it increases from18% in social class I, to 27% in social class V (Coronary Heart Disease statistics). Sorensen (2000) suggests that affluence; with unlimited access to food high in fat and calories increases susceptibility to gain excessive weight (World Health Organisation 1997). Therefore, one must consider the danger of stereotyping and stigmatising the lives of the poor (Taylor et al, 1997).

According to the department of health 21% of English women and 17% of men are obese. The proportion of the population now classified as obese has risen by 4 % since 1993 when 13% of men and 16% of women were obese and has doubled since the 1980’s. This has been attributed to poverty, a lack of understanding about a healthy diet, limited access to fresh fruit and vegetables and an increasingly sedentary life style (Coronary Heart Disease statistics 1999).

Lifestyles and behaviours are established in early life, with cultural or social norms regarding dietary restraint and attitudes to fatness being acquired during childhood. Cultural factors such as a mother taking great pride in her fat baby, giving food as a reward or believing that rapid weight gain is a sign of good health have been linked to childhood obesity.

In a review by The Nutrition society (2000) of childhood predictors of adult obesity, it was consistently found that men and women with lower socio-economic status origins had a greater risk of adult obesity than those men and women with a higher socio-economic status (Parsons et al, 1999).

Given the high prevalence of adult obesity it is not surprising that obesity in children is on the increase and since1980 British children have showed a twofold increase in weight for height across the board. (World Health Organisation 1997).

The average American child spends several hours each day watching television and obesity is greater among children who frequently watch TV (Dietz et al, 1995).

According to Jeffery Sobal (1995) schools provide areas for breeding discrimination and it was reported that children between the ages 4-11 years thought that obesity in their classmates was a result of poor social functioning, lower intelligence, laziness and lack of fitness.

In recent years most countries social control has given considerable attention to reducing the stigma attached towards many minority groups. For example legal measures have made it unfashionable to stigmatise a person on race, ethnic origin and sexual orientation. Unfortunately obesity remains the last socially acceptable form of prejudice and obese people are the only groups that social derogation can be directed to with impunity.

Children as young as 6 describe a silhouette of an obese person as lazy, dirty, stupid, ugly, cheats and liars. When shown black and white images of a normal weight child, a disfigured child and an obese child they concluded that the obese child would be the one they would least like as a friend. This appears to highlight the way in which prejudice is established from an early age within society on the basis of stereotype (Brownell et al, 1995) showing the foundation of social acceptance being enacted.

Perhaps then, it is from this tender age that with understanding and education, such damaging concepts can start to be reduced and perhaps finally eradicate some of the prejudice that society so generously gives to obesity.

Stem Cell Research Paper

How should society deal with the stem cell research controversy?
Stem cells are specialized cells which are formed at the very beginning stages of human embryo development. These types of cells are very unique because at the stage at which they are developed they are able to transform into many different kinds of tissue types in the human body. Stem cells can be obtained from tissues during a miscarriage or from embryos produced in labs. When the cells are isolated from everything in labs, they can be grown up and stored for later use. The whole controversy within the stem cell research deals with concerns surrounding abortion, which in turn deals with cloning. Many people in this world have a lot of different opinions when discussing cloning or abortion. Most of these opinions about this subject lie within the moral and ethical concerns of which is morally or ethically right to do or not. Right now some stem cell research is government funded for certain companies, but people could get around this by receiving private funds to start up their own stem cell research center.

What are the legal issues with stem cell research?
There are many laws that are state and federal in the United States that protects vulnerable human embryos from harmful experiments, but there also are many different ways medical technicians and doctors can use to get around these laws. According to the Department of Health and Human Services in 1999, the government allowed funding for human embryonic stem cell search to go ahead. The reason behind this states that “stem cells are not embryos and that research using cells obtained by destroying human embryos can be divorced from the destruction itself” (Duffy 1). Another law that is being debated by many activist groups and government agencies is to permit researchers to use fetal tissue obtained from elective abortions, which requires abortions that the have been performed for reasons which are entirely unrelated to the research objectives. This actually means that a legal aborted fetus’s tissues’ can be used for research only if it’s a legitimate abortion. So if a person were to purposely abort a fetus for research, it would be against the law, but a legally aborted fetus wouldn’t be against the law to do research on. This whole idea of using aborted fetus to perform stem cell research on is just wrong, either way it should be illegal because at one time that fetus was a living thing.

In many different states there are laws that protect embryonic human beings outside the womb and most of the states prohibit experiments on embryos outside the womb. According to Duffy, the states that include this law are Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Utah (2). So out of fifty states in the United States, only eight of them have laws that protect embryonic human beings outside the womb, but the other states might have even stricter laws than this.

For example, the California Bill SB 253 authorizes the use of stem cells for research that will hopefully lead to new treatments. This bill also is the first law in the United States that specifically authorizes research into the potential of stem cells for therapeutic purposes, whether extracted from adults or from embryos (Duffy 2).

Although federal funding is being used to conduct research on human embryonic stem cells, there still are some restrictions on what they can and can’t do. According to Duffy, federal funds will not be used for derivation or use of stem cell lines derived from newly destroyed embryos, creation of any human embryos for research purposes, and cloning of human embryos for any purposes (3).

What are the pros and cons of stem cell usage?
There are many cons when dealing with stem cell research and the list could go on for ever, but the following are just a few. When using frozen embryos left over from in vitro fertilization they are currently used for stem cell research. Anti-abortion slogan “Abortion stops a beating heart.” Fortunately there is no heart in a pre-implantation embryo. But provided by these embryos can lead into stem cells that can lead to great work done with curing disease. Some people still feel that these are still considered life because they are embryos. According to Judie Brown, of American Life League, “these are the tiniest person,” and “that stem cells research is a destruction of life” (4). There also has been test done on fetal tissues and the side effects have been labeled disastrous and horrible. Most Americans in this country have been able to see relativism in these issues. They are more likely to accept abortions at the early stage rather than the late stage. They are also more tolerant of a single abortion than multiple abortions as well. This then goes again to say that some Americans believe that life begins at conception.

On the other side of the issue there are many pros as well. Some opinions of anti-abortionist are that they should not confuse stem cell research with abortion because separating the two is very important. Stem cells that private scientific firm use is not from a woman’s womb, which they’ve never been aborted. Adult stem cell research has been proven to do the same as embryos, for instance using from bone marrow hasn’t proved that it always works. Also it is important to realize that the scientists who study stem cells now, get most of their sperm and eggs from donations to produce embryos.

All over America abortion clinics routinely discard thousands of left over embryos that are unusable to placement in wombs. By doing this, the abortion clinics are really wasting good embryos that can be used for research down the road. As early as 1973, seventy-five countries all over the world legalized abortion. Unfortunately, America didn’t legalize it until down the road when abortion was finally declared a constitutional right. A 7-2 majority of justices said that the right to abortion is included in the right to privacy. America also has an importance in religion, which most religions believe that abortion is wrong because it is killing an innocent life form.

What are the moral implications associated with this topic?
There are many moral and ethical issues that can be linked to this particular topic. The most obvious question to be asked is, “is stem cell research ethical, or even right?” Scientists have several different choices when performing stem cell research. One way is the use of aborted babies, but a second, less controversial method is the use of the placenta of the mother, bone marrow, or the umbilical cord blood in actual births. It is true that these methods of research are used mainly for the finding of treatments for diseases, but according to the British Medical Journal, “given the right environment, bone marrow cells can be used to regenerate muscle tissue” (The Center for Bioethics… 6). By using something other than the actual aborted fetus to complete the research, the controversy over this subject wouldn’t cause so many problems and arguments.

A second major issue dealing with the morality of stem cell research is the question of homicide. Many protestors of stem cell research argue that it is not right to kill one human being to benefit another, especially when the benefits may not come for a long while. Scientists argue that an unborn fetus is in fact, is not a human being at all. But an international scientific consensus recently recognized that, “human embryos are biologically human beings beginning at fertilization” (The Center for Bioethics…3). So, according to this finding, stem cell research is in fact murder.

Finally, a third major moral and ethical concern dealing with stem cell research is a religious one, that scientists are just trying to “play God”. This argument deals with the actual research itself, more than it deals with the actual process of the research. The reason for stem cell research is mainly to re-grow certain parts of the body to replace other human beings “bad” body parts, mainly organs. Another reason is to try and find cures for diseases. While these might sound like great ideas, many people believe that things happen for a reason, that people get sick and die for a reason, what makes it our right to change one’s destiny (Morgan 1)? By advancing scientifically this way, one can assume that humans are looking for the “perfect world”. A recent statement from Health and Human Services states, “stem cell research is too promising to be slowed or prohibited … we are underscoring the sort of utopianism and hubris that could blind us to the truth of what we are doing and the harm we could cause to ourselves and others” (The Center For Bioethics…3). One can assume that once society achieves these goals, scientists just wouldn’t stop. New and more controversial issues are likely to arise, for example human cloning. What may seem like a great idea now, may be the end of the quality of life desired for all humans.

Will the number of abortions conducted or the decision to abort be lessened if stem cell research is not used?
The question of whether or not the abortion rate would decrease if stem cells research was not used or allowed is a hard one to answer. One could assume that the numbers would decrease because of the possibility of secretly paying women for aborted fetuses. One could also assume that mothers of unwanted pregnancies may be more willing to abort their babies in the name of research, but if this research was not available, maybe these mothers would choose an alternate route instead, like adoption. Without this option, women wouldn’t have to worry as much about this pressing issue. But because we don’t know this for a fact the numbers could very well stay the same. Again it is almost impossible to know the true raw numbers of abortions each year. This is why this issue is virtually impossible to answer.

While this issue can be easily argued both ways, society needs to choose for itself which way to go. With many different researchers and scientists out there, there are many other ideas dealing with stem cell research, the possibilities are endless. The controversy following stem cell research will be argued for many years to come. The problems with mothers donating their unborn fetuses to research will probably never disappear. There will never be a way to stop scientists from secretly performing research. But in a way stopping the scientists could be a bad idea because you need to remember that they are the brains of these operations and without them the world probably wouldn’t be where it is today. There are also many different opinions regarding whether doing stem cell research is ethically or morally fit for society, but something that many people do before looking up the facts on an experiment is to judge the topic before the facts are stated about experiment. For example, stem cell research is judged before even considered due to people’s own moral and ethical standings. Not knowing about stem cell research isn’t enough evidence to down grade it just because it has the potential to use parts of people or fetus to help other people out, doesn’t necessarily mean it’s a wrong thing to do. Although using cells from another person, be it an adult or fetus some people are still against the idea because researchers could be killing a living thing to save another, which by many people’s standards is morally wrong. Since the research is moving so rapidly, society needs to come to a decision about stem cell research before it goes beyond societies wishes.

Forensic Science Research Paper

As history is remembered, there is a great deal riding on the turn of the twentieth century. Understandably the turn into this new era came to be known as the century of science and for no better reason than the latest growth in our technological advancements. Along with this came a new scientific detection, uncovering and devoting the change in technology to the deterring of crime and the capturing of criminals. This true systematic footing gave way to a new approach in crime identification and the results that followed shocked the world, as the birth of forensic science came about.

Advancements in forensic science are constantly developing through the application of evidence and the growth of technology. The factual scientific evidence that is gathered at each crime scene must be understood as solid evidence, given that a suspect can be granted freedom or confinement because of the applied techniques used for or against his case. Because forensics provides the most accurate point in investigation of a crime scene, we must understand that the best way to identify criminals is through the application of forensic science.

In 1887 the world of crime was given a new detective, a detective who had the ability to solve, and explain why and how crimes were created. A fiction novel produced by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle gave creation to the greatest of all fictional sleuths Sherlock Holmes (Doyle). Holmes discoveries and abilities to rationalize with crime gave exponential growth to the world of criminal investigation. It was an era of trial and tribulation, but in the imagination of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle a fictitious forensic scientist paved the way for criminal investigation. Sherlock Holmes was notorious for setting the prime example for using criminal methods along with tactics such as the well known magnifying glass in the search for “clues”. Even before the ingenious deductive reasoning of Sherlock Holmes, forensic science has grown from its beginnings as early as the 700s. The Chinese were renowned for beginning the work of fingerprints in reference to the identity of documents and clay sculptures (Eckert 45). From this discovery criminal investigation took a dynamic progress towards the application of forensic sciences.

The 1800’s provided substantial growth including the use of questioning criminals in the approach to solving the crime. This decade also saw the development of testing in different methods in an advancement to recognize the presence of blood as well the use of photography to preserve the identification and documentation of the crime scene (History of Forensic). It was not until 1888 when the use of forensic science was actually applied to the corpse of Jack the Ripper in reference to the discovery of wound patterns or the methods used in his murders. Doctors in London were given permission to examine the body to further understand the reasons behind his murders. From the 1800’s into the turn of the next century forensic science revealed its true reasoning’s and recorded an advancement in the field for every year from then on out.

Forensic science over the last hundred years has given insight into the world of crime and has placed a hindrance on crime itself. In the early 1900’s forensic specialists were for the most part self-taught, with the motivation that there were no schools or areas that emphasized the practice of such an application of sciences (Eckert 27). It was not until the 1930’s that such an approach towards forensic investigation actually established an academic discipline. The changing efforts of forensic science lead to an astonishing amount of new discoveries throughout the 1900’s. Establishments of microscopes used for bullet comparison in the 1920’s allowed for investigators to accurately match a bullet to the gun it was released from. Along with this discovery came the development of the absorption-inhibition ABO blood typing technique in 1931 and the long waited invention of the breathalyzer for sobriety test finally arrived “History of Forensic”. The late 80’s saw the biggest change in forensic science history, the birth of DNA testing to accurately solve a crime and vindicate an innocent suspect. DNA testing grew to be the most predominant certification, accreditation and stable testing in the application of forensic sciences in the court of law (History of Forensics). The dawn of a new science was here at last and the problem behind criminals at large would finally come to an end.

Currently as a freshman attending the University of Northern Colorado, I intend to double major in the fields of criminal justice and chemistry, with an emphasis in forensic science. I have always had a desire to work in the field of forensics to develop technologies that will further the study and application of science to the law. Over the past two years I have worked with the Aurora Police Department (APD), and the coroners’ office in furthering my knowledge in the study of medical jurisprudence or forensics. While working with the APD I established the opportunity to collaborate my efforts with the Criminal Scene Investigation unit (CSI). While there I was given the chance to meet many of the officers who worked in that department, including forensic analysis detectives and the crime scene detectives. I was put through a series of tests including a polygraph test (lie detector) and a series of handwriting analysis. While with the CSI unit I spent much of my time in real life scenarios and experienced first hand the initial process of the crime scene. For example, the initial search of the residence is crucial for the safety of the officers at the scene, and as well the importance of maintaining the original structure of the evidence. Maintaining a “clean” crime scene will provide for undisturbed evidence and the protection of the officers arriving first in case of any threatening dangers.

I witnessed many cases, some of which are still pending, and visited a handful of autopsies revealing information dealing with cause of death. In working with those cases I learned that all deaths are treated as murders until proven otherwise. In certain scenarios dealing with death the officer in charge of that scene would remove a hair strand from the victim and take it to the lab for examination. At the lab the forensic scientist would examine the hair follicle for a built up source of protein. This process was used to identify whether or not the victim struggled, because as your body is in a state of helplessness it produces and releases a chemical that causes a bonding agent (protein) to form around hair follicles and if so then the case was usually taken as a murder. I worked along side many of the investigating task forces, including homicide, fraud and white collar crimes. This internship has proved to be invaluable and will continue to enhance my knowledge and interests in the aspect of criminal scene investigation.

Forensic science or medical jurisprudence has an extensive array of applications dealing with crime and law, which prove to be of most value in the developing of technologies to further the scientific gathering and recording of evidence. Forensic science deals with many modern day indecencies in relation to civil cases including forgeries, fraud and negligence. Forensics is also used in everyday scenarios including the determination of any violations in the use of food markets, the production of medicines, the evaluation of drinking water, establishing whether it meets legal purity, and determining that the emissions of automobiles are at acceptable levels (Kenny 23). On an international level forensics will oversee the production of Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and investigations of any establishment or creation behind nuclear weapons. Although forensics does deal with a large variety of applications the most common and well known are those that deal with a victim, including robbery, kidnapping, assault, rape and murder (Forensic Science). Of these futile crimes an examination of the victim or the evidence present is an essential requirement, foreseen as being of utmost importance in the closing stages of the trial.

With each murder the large question at hand is the cause of death. In dealing with the victim the individual who conducts an examination of the corpse or autopsy is the medical examiner (Forensic Science). Also known as a coroner, the medical examiner’s job is to study the body or victim to determine type of death (natural or unnatural), cause of death being gunshot wounds or sever trauma to the skull and relativity of death to argument at trial. After this information is gathered along with the past medical history of the patient, the examiner establishes a report and provides a copy for the district attorney to provide as evidence for the case at trial. The medical examiner starts an examination by taking into account the recent guided expertise or retrieved information that has been established at the crime scene. Because there are an extensive number of ways in which a person can die, it is necessary for the medical examiner to understand the broad study of structural as well as functional alterations that can occur to a body due to injury (Marriner 67). A medical examiner usually specializes in forensic pathology. Along with a certain specialty an examiner tends to acknowledge oneself with an extensive amount of training and attends a credited university in search of a doctorate.

Forensic science includes many investigative areas, including pathology (examination of body tissues and fluids), toxicology (study of drug related substances), and odontology (the examination of teeth). Along with theses three main examination principles come a few areas of natural study including psychiatry, anthropology, biology, chemistry, and physics (Saferstein 67). Although the natural areas of study are not as pertinent to the actual application of forensics they still provide for a strong approach to guided solutions and how certain crimes are committed. Forensic science strongly depends on the contents included at a crime scene, through precise and accurate measures in the discovery of evidence. In addition to the investigating areas of examination, there are a number of other methods used in the approach to solving the crime. They consist of: ballistics, cause of death, disputed documents, DNA typing, explosives and fire, fingerprinting, forensic anthropology, psychological profiling, identification of remains, serology, time of death, trace evidence and voice prints (Evans 14). Although all are important for accurately determining the cause of death, this report will touch base with all, but will provide for more information on some than others. With every applied science come representatives who have acquired a degree of expertise and a broad area of knowledge to each of the related fields. Individuals of this nature are absolutely imperative to the medical examiner and the diagnostics of the body.

Each of the three main areas of study are linked to the initial examination of the body. First of which and most commonly used in the application of forensics is pathology. Used for a variety of different reasons pathology is the general examination of body tissues and fluids. Primarily in association with post-mortem chemical changes and changes in connection with wounding. (Davies 56). For example when a body is found at a crime scene with no known cause of death, different methods will be used in the examination of the body itself and the fluids of that particular body. With an examination of the body pathologists will be able to determine the time of death and will develop suitable evidence pertaining to the cause of death.
Along with the relationship binding the time of death to the cause of death comes a perpetual area that highlights the method used at the crime scene. In the late seventeenth century, a chemist by the name of Johann Metzeger developed a method that would clarify if there was any use of arsenic (a poison used in the late 1700’s into the next century) in any given murder (Evans 230). Prior to this scientist of all types would baffle over a death, uncertain to say whether it was of natural or unnatural causes. Metzeger discovered that if a substance containing arsenic was heated and a cold plate was placed over the heated substance a thin layer of arsenious oxide would form on the plate. Although this discovery led to the detection of arsenic in food, it bore no direct relationship between whether or not the poison had been consumed by the body.

This initial discovery gave way to a detection of arsenic located in the corpse. A Dr. Valentine Rose of the Berlin Medical Facility in 1806 found that if he were to cut up a corpse’s stomach and boiled its contents to filter any remaining flesh, he could treat it with nitric acid which had the effect of converting any presence of arsenic into arsenic acid “Drugs and Firearms”. By doing so allowed for the remains to be subjected to Metzeger’s cold plate phenomenon.

This scientific study was taken one step further when a middle-aged London chemist named James Marsh invented a suitable means of detecting even the smallest amounts of arsenic. His method was similar to the original method of Metzger’s cold plate, but instead required the use of a U-shaped tube which gave way for only the smallest secretion of vapors which exited through a small nozzle. The tested material was dropped onto a zinc plate and then covered with sulfuric acid. If any arsenic gas was detected, then as it passed through the glass tube its residue would form a layer in the circular part of the tube “Drug and Firearm”.

This method invented by James Marsh is still used today in a refined form. Now because arsenic is not the only potent poison in the hands of criminals, others such as strychnine and cyanide need to be made aware of so industrial chemicals can find a relationship between reactions. Although the study put forth in the discovery of toxicology was long and stringent, there were only approximately 28 homicides dealing with toxicology recorded in the united states in 1996 “Drugs and Firearms”. Yet with this discovery there still are individuals who dare test the James Marshes creation of arsenic identification or more appropriately known today as the lab of forensic analysis.

A human corpse can be twisted, tangled, plunged into a raging river and even burned, and not much of its components will outlast the teeth after death. Because of this, scientists have become quite familiar with identification through means of odontology. As a matter of fact many times it is the case that at certain crime scenes the only means of identification consists of the teeth. Arguably it is said that just as fingerprints have no identical match neither do teeth given that there has never been a recorded match, but one may still exist (Bennett 117). As well as fingerprints, teeth tend to wear and distort from the original recorded data that was collected during childhood years. Because of this it is vital to have both ante- and postmortem means of identification for a successful identification to take place (Heras 57).
Throughout the world today over two hundred different tooth charting methods exist. The universal approach used in most developed countries including America includes a count from the upper right molar to the lower left molar totaling 32 teeth (Evans 142). Because a odontogram or dental grid is created by recording five visible surfaces, the likelihood of there ever being exactly two identical matches is slight. As well as serving for identification of a unidentifiable corpse, the recorded odontological features also provide for common ground in identifying criminals if bite marks should exist at a crime scene. In many cases a bite mark may be the apparent evidence linked to the conviction of crimes such as burglary, homicide, child abuse and rape. In fact as the statistics report since 1992 there have been one hundred and ninety three reported cases, dealing with odontology (Weigler 1).

As of the late eighties The American Dental Association (ADA) sought out a means of future identification, by inserting a coded micro disc onto an upper molar. On each of these micro chips a twelve digit code is embedded, which can be read and matched by a computer. This code contains information about an average citizen’s personal traits. Teeth also are used for the recognition of an individual’s age, by measuring the growth of the dental tissue surrounding the tooth. Because teeth wear down from constant use the accuracy in recording the appropriate age lessens once the tested individual reaches age 25.
Of the previous discussed methods used in crime scene investigation, ballistics deals around a broad spectrum of projectiles in motion and what cause will effect that motion. When the term ballistics is brought up in forensic investigation it has created a definition of its own that deals primarily with the study of firearms and bullets (Heard 74). In recorded history it is known that the first hand gun originated in approximately 1200 A.D. Etched into the barrel of each handgun is a spiral grove that improves the aim of the handgun, by placing a spin on the projectile and stabilizing its motion. It is exactly this groove that allows forensic scientists to compare and identify the relationship between each bullet and handgun. This process known as rifling leaves a special mark called striations on the surface of the bullet and allows for this method to be used (Giannelli 195).

Because each barrel is manufactured differently it is possible to identify if a certain bullet was fired from a certain gun. Of course there are numerous numbers of bullets for each gun, but the variations from bullets fired from each gun is immediately apparent. This process of ballistics is manageable because each gun is manufactured separately. Given that each time a new gun is created the same tool that created the last gun would be used for each remaining gun. Because the tools to make the barrels are worn down immediately with each succeeding gun, it would be impossible to exactly in code or etch the same pattern twice (Evans 3). On top of that each gun will hold its pattern allowing for a direct comparison to be made to each bullet fired.

One impartial argument that can be made in determining and matching the gun to the bullet is the fact that when a bullet is fired, generally it is fired with meaning to strike. Because of this if the bullet were to come in contact with a hard bone or other material, this could cause the bullet to become distorted and in turn create a problem in matching the bullet to the gun (Iabinovia 131). But with each fired bullet a casing or shell is released into the crime scene making it more profitable to use for evidence. Just as with each bullet the shell as well is given a marking caused by the firing pin which is released by the trigger embedding its own marking onto the back of each shell. A shell is composed of a casing and a soft metal cap that is struck by the pin to create an internal explosion causing the bullet to release from the shell down the barrel and swirling through the air. Before the discovery of smokeless powder with each firing of a weapon the GSR or gun shot residue was left behind on the shooter’s skin which could be tested through chemical processing. Because an array of household products contain nitrate which is the substance that is left behind after the firing of the weapon, that method has been then since thought over.

With every crime scene that deals with a death whether it be a suicide, or murder, the main question at stake is the cause of death. Along with the first analytical approach in investigating a victims death, there must reside conclusive evidence for three questions. Who is the person? How long has he or she been dead? What was it that caused the death? Even before science took an interest in crime, the puzzling phenomenon that had baffled even the most intellectual forensic detectives was the cause of death (Petschel 82). Determining whether or not the cause of death was an accident out of clumsiness, or a plotted murder establishes whether or not there will be a charge filed and a suspect sought. For example, case dealing with a husband and his wife where the husband claims that his wife fell to her death down a flight of stairs, yet with the autopsy showing that her injuries are inconsistent with that type of fall may lead investigators to believe otherwise.

As talked about earlier, the pathologist now is the sole investigator of determining the cause of death. By examination of body fluids and tissues the medical examiner can narrow down the evidence to what had caused the victims death and answer the three important questions that reside in finding solid scientific evidence. With the knowledge to discover how, why, and for what reasons a person has died, gives science only an extended parameter of detection (Rainio 171).

Throughout the world of forensic detection our differences as individuals are noted by the color of our hair, or our eyes, our height and our weight. Each of these characteristics gives others a guideline to follow when determining how one of us may differ from the other. At the scene of a crime our characteristics must be more identifiable than just a visual concept to follow. There are a handful of ways to determine whether the questioned suspect was at the crime scene. The use of visual aid might come in play, for instance a neighbor may notice an unusual individual entering the house next door, and later hear that a burglary took place at the same residence that she had noticed the suspicious felon. The neighbor can provide the police with the initial evidence pertaining to characteristics of the individual. This is a grand initial step in the process of investigation, but again the solid scientific evidence must be more concrete than the word of one witness.

In 1911, biochemist Phoebus Levene discovered the long waited concrete evidence that will provide for a solid investigation, as will hold up in the court of law as unyielding evidence. It was through the understanding that each individual cell has a nucleus containing nucleic acid. It was also discovered that there are two types of nucleic acid, one known as ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid or more commonly called DNA (Evans 55). This proposed theory stated that within each nucleus is a set of twenty-three pairs of chromosomes made up of DNA. It was later discovered that this phenomenon was possible given that your genetic code, or DNA strand is embedded by one chromosome of your father’s sperm and one chromosome from your mother’s egg (Gans 168). This breakthrough in technology would soon lead to a grand conclusion and even further established evidence.

In the 1940’s it was determined that a DNA code was a life strand and not only could it identify an individual but it was also the genetic makeup that gives us our personal individual traits. A DNA strand is a lot like a tutorial in a video game or the index of a book. Just as an index or tutorial is unique to its own book or game, a DNA strand is the same for us. It was determined around the 1950’s that there are four isolated chemicals that make up our genetic code, adenie (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thiamine (T). Like rungs of a ladder each are strung together to provide for our genetic makeup. The key to the placement of each individual chemical is mapped out as having (A) always joining with (T) and (C) always attaching with (G). In turn an example of a section of our life line would be as follows:
A-C-T-T-G-A-C
T-G-A-A-C-T-G
Even though the same genetic structure is created to be universal because each of us has the same body parts and organs, the linking section will vary from individual to individual. As a sample of DNA is removed from one individual it can be mixed with a restriction enzyme that will remove a strand or “piece of the code” at a particular sequence. This stand is then placed in a gel and an electrical current is passed through it separating the fragments according to size. Once complete the DNA structure is removed from the gel by a nylon membrane called a blot. This code is then treated with a radioactive genetic probe which will attach the polymorphic DNA fragments (Gans 212). DNA can be retrieved from a large number of samples but the most common are blood, hair, and semen. After a series of comparisons, scientists can tell if the DNA removed from the crime scene is a match with the suspected criminal.

It was once said that “nothing has more greatly enhanced the cause of crime detection than the discovery that no two people have the same fingerprints.” In 1879, a clerk at the Prefecture of Police in Paris, named Alphonse Bertillon produced the first systematic approach of identifying one individual from the next. A simple characteristic, such as an individuals hair color provides for an accurate difference between two individuals. Yet when evidence at a crime scene is discovered the simple characteristic will not hold stable, in proving the suspects guilt in the court of law. Bertillion’s method was based on the measurement of 243 separate lengths of an individuals body (Evans 90). Rather surprising, Bertillion’s method was quite accurate and became well known across the land. But it was sure to be condemned almost at birth by another means of identification, this one foolproof. With such a brilliant discovery, every man began to reason amongst themselves in awe, not understanding how one individuals fingerprint could be dissimilar from the rest. Even before there time fingerprints were used as a means of identification, in fact this individuality had been long recognized in such civilizations as China and Babylon. In the book of Job a passage reads, “He sealeth up the hand of every man that all men may know his work.” The idea of all men being similar by nature and no one could be accurately identified just by their fingerprints, was settled at another man’s curiosity. A Dr. Henry Faulds, published a letter in Nature, a British scientific journal that sparked the identity of fingerprints. Intrigued by finger impressions on fragments of ancient pottery, Faulds became interested in the idea that these so called fingerprints could be used as a method of identification. And so the modern fingerprint analysis began, and the excitement was noticed by the debate in Nature, and the first serious study of fingerprints began.

After scientist discovered that fingerprints were not inherited and that even identical twins have different ridge patterns, the classification of fingerprints were put into three groups; arches, loops, and whorls. Even more so fingerprint impressions fall into three basic types: latent, visible, and the plastic or molded print. By far the most common is the latent print, which is invisible to the eye, but is formed by sweat from the hands themselves or the unnoticed contact between the fingers and the glands located on the other parts of ones body. A latent print is particularly faun of such surfaces as glass or polished wood. The second type of print and the most legible kind is held together with the stained markings of blood or ink. This type of print known as the visible print is a rarity at a crime scene. The last print and also very rare to find is the plastic or molded print. This print is made on a soft surface, such as cheese, soap, or putty (Beavan 74).
Along with the different impressions that can be formed by a fingerprint, comes a variety of methods used to examine the prints. There are a number of ways to inspect a print, but the most common is the use of a black powder or organic substance. With this black powder, the investigating officer can sprinkle some shards over the item that is being examined, and then run a magnet over the powder to remove the excess powder. After the powder has absorbed into the detailed ridges on the fingerprint, the officer can remove the print with an adhesive strip, to later be tested and compared to others (suspect identities). On certain surfaces, such as checks, or security documents an iodine-fuming process is best to use, to lift the print. This new means of identification brought forth a dramatic increase in the criminal apprehension.

With every body discovered, the first question at the crime scene asked is “Who is the person?” This is of great importance given that in most murder cases the victim is normally killed by someone they know. It is exactly this reason why murderers go to great extents to conceal their victims identity. Bodies in general are very difficult to dispose of, bulky and cumbersome, they tend to float in water, resist fire, smell awful, and are usually full of clues as of the persons identity. Of these clues, some such as bones and teeth merit individual consideration and are dealt elsewhere in this paper. In the initial process of discovering a body, putting names to a few scrapes of remains has frequently provided forensic science with its greatest triumphs.

Linking the mystery of a unknown body to the identity of one individual, working with barely a handful of human matter is an astonishing accomplishment. Our bodies are unique to us and do have distinctive characteristics that provide information on our beings. These distinctive characteristics include: fingerprints, odontology (bite marks), voice prints, and serology (blood analysis. Although three of the four listed have traits that are exclusive to each individual, serology alone provides information on our blood types that can be common amongst one another. The average human being has about ten pints of blood gurgling through his or her system at any given time (Bennett 143). As of 1875 scientist realized that there were indeed various types of blood and that even though the visual characteristics looked the same, the genetic makeup was vastly different.

In 1901 an Australian-born biologist named Karl Landsteiner standardized the grouping system and coded our blood to today’s present form. This process was done by separating the serum in red blood cells in a centrifuge, and then mixing the serum with blood cells from different individuals. Landsteiner noticed that if he was to mix different blood cells with one another a different distinctive reaction would occur, rather than if he were to mix the same blood cells from two different individuals. In two separate processes the blood cells of one serum would attract to one another and the blood cells of another serum would repel one another. Or in other words one group of cells agglutinated-or clumped together-the other didn’t.

Landsteiner was sure of his conclusion and labeled the two blood variations A and B. Not long after he made his stated position, he discovered a third blood type that as well reacted differently from both A and B. He named this blood type C, which soon became known as O (Bennett 145). One year later Landsteiner’s assistant discovered yet another type of blood that did not agglutinate with either A or B. This new blood variation was labeled AB, and thus the four blood types were identified. The next great advancement in the understanding of blood variations came in 1949, when two British scientist concluded that the nuclei that are found in female blood cells, will generally contain a distinctive structure that is rare in males.

These discoveries have lead the way in criminology and in the understanding of different blood variations. When blood is found at a crime scene, investigators are now able to determine if the presence of this unknown substance can identifiably and accurately be labeled as blood. This process is done by the use of a Kastle-Meyer test, which uses a solution of phenolphthalein that will turn pink if it comes in contact with blood. After it has been established that the substance is blood, another test known as the precipitin test can be preformed to establish weather or not it is human blood and not animal blood. Lastly, with the use of the processes listed above the blood can be grouped into its given classification, A, B, O or AB and then determined weather the sample it came from is male or female. For all of these reasons, blood is one of the most reliable and solid evidence found at a crime scene.

With the discovery of a body it is crucial that investigators determine the time of death. In doing so there are three traditional methods used in determining the length of time that the corpse has been dead: rigor mortis, hypostasis, and body temperature. None of which are completely reliable given that each of with can be hastened by a number of factors. Rigor mortis usually begins to set in approximately three hours after death, causing muscle tension that begins in the face hand slowly works its way down the entire body. The process, once initiated usually takes about twelve hours to travel through the body and approximately thirty six hours for the body to return to its normal state.

Hypostasis will also develop in a regular time sequence, just as rigor mortis. Once the heart stops mixing the plasma and the cell begin to settle like the sediment in a fine glass of wine the skin will begin to change colors in approximately thirty to sixty minuets. This process begins with the cells settling and then releasing from each of there individual capillaries, and enter the body. Depending on the position of the body at time of death, will depend on the area of discoloration. For example if a body is found dead on its back, gravity will take effect and the process of hypostasis will begin the discoloration across the individuals back (Snyder 74). In addition to the information provided by the process, this will also help investigators accurately decide the position of the body at time of death.

The third method used in determining the time of death is body temperature. When oxygen is no longer fueling the body and keeping it warm, the temperature falls at a rate of approximately one degree per hour. There can be a vast significance to the temperature of an obese individual compared to that of a thinner person. As well the temperature of the room where the body is located can create a difference in the average temperature of the body over a lapsed period of time. A universal formula is used when determining the time of death: normal temperature (98.6 °F) – body temperature / 1.5 (Evans 217).

In determining the time of death all factors must be 100% accurate to report an accurate time of death. Generally the approximate time of death will provide for an overall accurate decision on when the body had died. Listed here are then the conventional means of establishing an approximate time of death. Of course science is continually developing new improvements that will further the listed processes.

“Every contact leaves a trace.” So said the great French criminologist Dr. Edmund Locard. Every time a crime occurs involving physical contact, there is sure to be a “clue” or identifiable trace of evidence left behind. Each time a perpetrator commits a crime he will either leave something behind or take something along with him, often it is both. The most common items to be left at a crime scene are things like, hair, fibers, grit, powder, flakes of skin, a button or any other of countless items. With the evidence gathered it is crucial that the investigating officer handles and retrieves the evidence with great care. By its nature trace evidence is very minute and very easy to overlook (Nicekell 122). Only the most precise and meticulous examination will uncover all that there is to be found.

At each crime scene the trace evidence that is worth gathering may be invisible to the naked eye. For this reason, the handheld magnifying glass, although forever linked with images of Sherlock Holmes, still remains to be the single most useful piece of scientific equipment available to an investigator. The magnifying glass began its roots with the birth of criminal investigation, but gave light towards the invention of a compound microscope, which was invented in 1590. With even the newest technology of its time a simple reflected light microscope could only enhance an image up to a factor of one thousand times its size. It was found that even at such a great magnitude there was still need for greater magnification. In 1924 a French physicist Louis de Broglie first suggested the idea of a scanning electron microscope. Although a little ahead of his time Broglie gave substantial research in the process before it finally became fully operational in 1935. This new technological achievement would scan an image with an electronic beam and retrieve information which generates electronic emissions about the sample’s contours (Nickell 132). If that not alone stands above anything of its time, the microscope would produce an image up to 150,000 times its normal size as a three dimensional object. This technique is particularly useful in comparing evidence like paint fragments, fibers, paper, and wood. As well the microscope can enhance the image and provide high resolution photomicrographs as use in court cases.

The next question at stake is what is the unknown sample made of, and with our answer came two German scientist, Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Gustav Kirchoff, who discovered the principle of spectrometry. The two scientist discovered that with each individual atom came a series of their own signature, providing a method of identification just as our fingerprints do for us. By passing light through a substance it is possible to produce a spectrum, which the spectroscope will reveal a series of dark lines called absorption lines that can be measured at different levels of intensity (Nickell 134). Because of this it is possible to identify all manner of different substances.

Forensic science as applied today is a highly technological field using electron microscopes, lasers, ultraviolet and infrared light, advanced analytical chemical techniques and computerized databanks to analyze and record evidence. The future of forensics is in store for a tremendous amount of change through the approach of investigation and application of evidence. Forensic science has given birth to a new world of technological advancements, through the applications of DNA, the applicability of ballistics, the social structure of fingerprinting and the solid approach of all other investigation methods. It will be understood that as the advancements of forensic science strengthen, the tendency for any given individual to walk free from a crime will weaken. Because forensics provides for the most accurate position in investigation of a crime scene, we must understand that the best way to identify and prove the guilt of a criminal is through the application of forensic science.

Hitler Research Paper

Adolf Hitler used nationalism to slowly rise into power, and once he was at the top, he used political events to put forth racial policies that would eventually lead to the persecution of Jews. Hitler’s racial theories were put forth in a document called the Mein Kampf. The Mein Kampf glorified his racial policies and led people to believe that the persecution of the Jews was the only to have a stronger Germany.

Adolf Hitler was born in Austria in 1889 and raised as a Catholic. At first, Hitler wanted to become an architect, but he never had the opportunity to go to school and pursue his dream. At the start of World War I, Hitler enrolled in the German army and was put to run messages back and forth during the war. Hitler did an exceptional job and was given an award for bravery. After the war was over, Hitler was homeless and had no real direction in his life, but politics and the military served as a guide for him.

Adolf Hitler, the leader and founder of the Nazi Party was a front-line soldier in World War I, and after the war he truly believed that he was the chosen leader for his nation. Hitler used nationalism as the main reason for his political revolution. Hitler said that there was a need for a revolution because democracy and modern life had plagued the nation of Germany. Hitler had placed the blame on diversity of race for the detriment of society, and he made racism the central feature of his nationalist ideology (Brower 109).

Adolf Hitler created the Nationalist Socialist (Nazi) Party, and it was the foundation for his revolution. Hitler’s followers understood the term Nazi to mean someone “who knows no higher ideal than the welfare of the nation.” The first step that Hitler made was creating a special group within the party called the Stormtroopers, otherwise known as the SA. The SA was made up of mostly war veterans who were dressed in special uniform and were always prepared to defend the party at all costs (Brower 110). A short time later, Hitler created a group called the Schutzstaffel, which is also known as the SS. The SS was like Hitler’s personal bodyguards, they were dressed in black and needed to prove their racial purity so that they could take an oath to obey him unquestioningly (Brower 110).

Hitler stated that his Nazi party would only support the cabinet if he became the leader. The German government totally disregarded the violence that the Nazi Party used and they saw it as a large movement that was dedicated to nationalism. In 1933, President von Hindenburg chose Hitler to be chancellor of Germany and had unknowingly taken a large step towards Nazism. Eventually Hitler persuaded the President to give extraordinary powers “for the persecution of the people and the state.” The President gave approval to the Enabling Act, which granted Hitler the authority to rule without constitutional restraints (Brower 111).

The country of Germany had become a one-party dictatorship, and anyone who opposed him was sent to concentration camp. In time the SA began to show opposition towards Hitler and to end the threat, he secretly planned for their removal. In 1934, he sent the SS squads to execute over seventy political leaders who he wanted eliminated, that night was called “night of the long knives” (Brower 111). Hitler claimed that he was responsible “for the fate of the German people.” At the time of death of President von Hindenburg, Hitler declared himself head of the state and commander and chief of Germany’s armed forces. Each and every soldier in the army had to make an oath of “unconditional obedience” and “as a brave soldier, to stake his life at any time for that oath.” The SS group loved to exercise their unrestricted power to arrest and punish anyone.

The main law of Germany was “the will of the leader has the force of the law.” Hitler’s efforts and the support of his followers had created a new empire known as the Third Reich (Brower 112). The Nazi Party felt that there was no place for Jews in their country and that hatred turned into inspiration for the policy of racial segregation and persecution. Hitler put forth the Nuremberg Laws of 1935, which banned Jews from having any part in German society. Hitler also released writings from the Mein Kampf, which glorified his racial policies against the Jews.

In the Mein Kampf Hitler gives reasons to why the Jews should be persecuted, but he words it in such a way that it seems justifiable. “The sin against the blood and the degradation of the race are the hereditary sin of this world and the end of mankind surrendering them.” Hitler is saying that it is a sin against the blood to be Jewish and if you are of Jewish descent you are a degradation to society. Hitler used Nationalism to gain the support of his followers; he promised the German people that the country would get better if he got rid of the inferior race, which is the Jews. Hitler also believed that marriage was only good if it were between two pure German people so that they could preserve their race.

Hitler also believed that in order to be a good citizen you must be strong and ready for battle. “Thus the entire education has to be directed towards employing the free time of the boy for the useful training if his body.” Hitler had the strong belief that everything was supposed to be done for the betterment of the country no matter what it was. Hitler felt that the Jewish people were a disease to his society, and the only way for his country to become powerful was to exterminate them one by one. “For here, if necessary, one will have to proceed to the pitiless isolation of incurably diseased people; a barbaric measure for one who was unfortunate enough to be stricken with it, but a blessing for the contemporaries and for posterity. The temporary pain a century may and will redeem millenniums from suffering.”

Hitler believed that racial mixing added to the pain of a society and that leaders should do anything it takes, even by violent means, to make sure that there is racial purity. Hitler came into power through the use of force and violent threats to anyone who opposed him. He justified his actions by stating that everything he was doing was for the good of the country. He gained the support of the masses because after the First World War the country was in desperate need of a good leader that would heal the damaged Germany.